======================================================================== Visual Satellite Observing F A Q Chapter-08 What Are Some Of The Rockets Used To Place Satellites In Orbit? ======================================================================== ---- 8.0 What are some of the rockets used to place satellites in orbit? Many nations are active in satellite development or are involved in cooperative agreements with other nations to launch spacecraft. Though a few smaller countries are developing a space launch capability, it is very expensive, and many of these nations have chosen to develop their space capability by using the commercial services of the existing space launch capable nations. Listed here are most of the known space launch vehicles, by country. Most are active systems though some have not yet reached operational capability. Where possible, the lift mass that the rocket is capable of lifting into orbit is provided to give the satellite observer an idea of the size and type of satellite that can be launched. ---- 8.1 Russian Rockets The Russian rockets described below are the principle vehicles for satellite launches in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). There are other known launch vehicles but they have either become obsolete or are simply not used due to economic or political reasons. ---- 8.1.1 Proton Proton was introduced in 1965 as a 2 stage vehicle but was modified into 3 and 4 stage versions. The vehicle appears to have strap-on boosters mounted at the bottom of the first stage but these are not strap-ons. They are the housings for the main engines and are surrounding the central tank that carries the propellant. There are four models now used for space launch: D, D-1, D-1-e and the KM. A 5th stage may be in development for the KM model. ---- 8.1.1.1 Proton D The Proton D is the original 2 stage model. It was developed to lift 12,200 kg (27,000 lb) to low earth orbit (LEO) but was quickly developed into the 3 and 4 stage versions so this version is likely no longer used. ---- 8.1.1.2 Proton D-1 Proton D-1 is a 3 stage version used principally for large LEO spacecraft and space station modules, 20,000 to 21,000 kg (44,100 to 46,300 lb). Its overall height is about 44.3 m (145 ft) but the choice of payload fairing will alter this height slightly. ---- 8.1.1.3 Proton D-1-e Proton D-1-e is a 4 stage version and is not used for LEO spacecraft. It can place 2600 kg (5700 lb) to geosynchronous earth orbit (GEO) though the vehicle is also used for planetary missions where it can deliver 4600 - 6200 kg (10,100 - 13,600 lb) to Mars. The D-1-e stands about 57.7 m (189 ft) tall. ---- 8.1.1.4 Proton KM Proton KM is a D-1-e with a new fairing and (under development) a 5th stage. With the 5th stage the Proton KM is expected to lift 3300 kg (7300 lb) to GEO. An updated stage 4 may enable this lift mass to increase to 4500 kg (9900 lb) to GEO. ---- 8.1.2 Tsiklon There are two Tsiklon versions: the F1 is a two stage rocket, the F2 is a 3 stage. They are based on an old 2 stage inter- continental ballistic missile (ICMB). The Tsiklon is used primarily for radar and electronic intelligence (ELINT) satellites. The F1 can lift 3000 kg (6600 lb) to LEO and the F2 and can place 3600 kg (8000 lb) into a 200 km (125 mile) LEO or up to 1300 kg (2900 lb) into a 3000 km (1800 mile) orbit. The vehicle looks somewhat like an Atlas-Centaur although it is shorter: F1: 35 m (115 ft), F2: 39.3 m (129 ft), and about the same diameter: 3.0 m (9.8 ft). (The principal diameter of the Atlas is 3.05 m (10 ft).) The Atlas, however, has three main engines, side-by-side, where the Tsiklon uses 6 engines arranged in a circle around the bottom of the main tank. ---- 8.1.3 Zenit The Zenit is built in a 2 stage (Zenit 2) or 3 stage (Zenit 3) version. Literature makes reference to a Zenit 4 which would have a 4th stage providing slightly higher GEO lift capability. The Zenit 2 is 57 m (187 ft) tall and 3.9 m (12.8 ft) diameter. The Zenit 3 is 61.4 m (201 ft) tall. The Zenit 2 is capable of placing 13,740 kg (30,300 lb) to LEO (200 km) or 11,300 kg (25,000 lb) into a (200 km) polar orbit from Tyuratam. The Zenit 3 can lift 3820 kg (8400 lb) to geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO), 600 kg (1300 lb) to GEO, 5000 kg (11,000 lb) to GTO equatorial, or 2000 kg (4400 lb) to GEO equatorial. ---- 8.1.4 Soyuz The Soyuz is the Russian manned lifter. The original model was the Voskhod (1963), but the modern Soyuz has a larger stage 2. The Soyuz is used for manned Soyuz missions, Progress Mir ferry operations, photoreconnaissance, remote sensing, and science missions, all in LEO. The Soyuz launch vehicle has a 2 stage central core with 4 strap-on boosters. The unmanned Soyuz is 45.2 m (148.3 ft) tall, and the manned version is 49.5 m (162.4 ft) tall with its escape tower. The central core stages are just under 3 m (10 ft) diameter. The Soyuz can lift 6900 kg (15,200 lb) to LEO but is thought to be capable of up to 7500 kg (16,500 lb). ---- 8.1.5 Cosmos The Cosmos rocket is used primarily for launching small military satellites in medium Earth orbits, though it is beginning to be used for commercial launches. The vehicle has two stages, stands 32.4 m (106 ft) tall, 2.4 m (7.8 ft) diameter, and can lift 1400 kg (3000 lb) to a 180 km (112 mile) circular orbit. A typical launch includes a 1000 kg (2200 lb) satellite placed in an 800-1500 km (500-930 mile) circular orbit. ---- 8.1.6 Molniya Molniya is the vehicle of choice for Molniya communications satellites and Cosmos satellites into molniya orbits. The early launch history of this rocket included planetary probes. Molniya is a three stage vehicle and is essentially a Soyuz with a longer burning second stage and a solid-fueled third stage. It is about 47.8 m (157 ft) tall but otherwise the same dimensions as the Soyuz. It can lift 1600 kg (3500 lb) to a molniya orbit or 900 kg (2000 lb) to a higher apogee orbit (200,000 km vs 40,000 km for a typical molniya orbit.) ---- 8.2 USA Military and NASA Rockets ---- 8.2.1 Delta The current launch vehicle of the Delta series is the Delta II. The Delta II is based on the Thor Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM). The original Delta medium-launch vehicle program was begun in the late 1950's by NASA with the Douglas Aircraft Company (now McDonnell Douglas) as prime contractor. They developed a space launch vehicle that used a modified Thor IRBM as the first stage and Vanguard missile components as the second and third stages. This configuration was first launched in 1960. Continued improvements over the years led to the Delta 3920 configuration used today as a commercial space launch vehicle. The military version of the Delta II is the 6925 and the 7925. Both have been used to launch GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites. The Delta II numbering convention provides details of the launch vehicle. The first digit (3,6,7) is the type of solid rocket motor: 3 : Castor IV 6 : Castor IVA 7 : Graphite Epoxy The second digit is the number of solid rocket motors (1-9). The third digit is the type of second stage: 1 : TRW 44,482 N (10,000 lb) thrust 2 : Aerojet 58,717 N (13,200 lb) thrust The fourth digit is the type of upper stage: 0 : no upper stage 5 : Payload assist module The Delta is 38.4 m (126 feet) tall, weighs 231,300 kg (510,000 pounds), has 4 million N (897,000 pounds) thrust and is launched from both Cape Canaveral and Vandenberg AFB. The Delta can place 5045 kg (11,100 pounds) to LEO (low-earth orbit) or 1820 kg (4010 pounds) to GEO (geosynchronous earth orbit). ---- 8.2.2 Atlas The Atlas is a mid 1950's designed Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM). Igniting a second stage was unreliable in the days the Atlas was designed so the system evolved as a "stage and a half" launch vehicle. The first stage is flanked on two sides with additional engines which, after about 150 seconds into flight, drop off leaving the core engine to continue propelling the vehicle. The original, 29.9 m (98 feet) tall, Atlas E model is no longer in the inventory - the last one was launched in 1995. The current Atlas models consist of the Atlas I, Atlas II, Atlas IIA, and the Atlas IIAS. Briefly, the Atlas I is essentially an Atlas E with upgraded engines, a Centaur upper stage and a large diameter payload fairing - total vehicle height is 42 m (138 feet). The Atlas I has been used to launch USA Navy FLTSATCOM satellites and is used by General Dynamics Corp. for commercial launches. The Atlas I is currently only launched from Cape Canaveral. The Atlas II is an upgraded Atlas I and has been used to launch the DSCS III satellites. It is 2.74 m (9 feet) longer than the Atlas I and does not use the side-mounted vernier rockets. The upper stage Centaur used by the Atlas II uses an upgraded engine and has been stretched 1m (3 feet). The Atlas IIA and IIAS are essentially the II model with yet another upgrade of the Centaur upper stage. The IIAS has four Castor 4A solid fuel boosters strapped on for additional lift. The Atlas family of boosters has been used as launchers for the USA Mercury program, Mariner, INTELSAT, and Pioneer among others. The Atlas family of launch vehicles can place between 5580 and 8390 kg (12,300 to 18,500 pounds) to LEO or between 2250 and 3490 kg (4950 to 7700 pounds) to GEO. ---- 8.2.3 Titan The Titan family of launch vehicles was the result of the USA Air Force's need for a two-stage missile of intercontinental range with storable propellants. First flights of the Titan I were in 1959, and the Titan II was tested in 1962. The core vehicle of all Titans is a two-stage assembly with three engines - two in the first stage and one in the second stage. At present there are three Titan models in use - the Titan II, III and IV. The Titan II is still used by the military for satellite launches from both Cape Canaveral and Vandenberg. The Titan III, for commercial heavy-lift, and the Titan IV are both conspicuous by the addition of two, strap-on solid rocket motors (SRM). Designated as "stage 0", the SRMs are ignited and are the sole motors providing lift for about two minutes. At burnout of the SRMs, the Stage 1, liquid fueled engines, are ignited. The Titan IV is used for the heaviest of satellites like the Defense Support Program satellites and MILSTAR and is launched from both Cape Canaveral and Vandenberg. Launched from the Cape, the Titan IV carries the Centaur or Inertial Upper Stage; launched from Vandenberg it carries no upper stage. The Titan vehicles can place between 12,600 and 17,700 kg (27,800 to 39,000 pounds) to LEO or between 2000 and 4100 kg (4600 and 9040 pounds) to GEO. ---- 8.2.4 Pegasus The Pegasus is a winged, air-launched rocket developed by the USA Advanced Research Projects Agency. There are two variants of the Pegasus vehicle - the baseline version with three solid stages and the larger variant which carries a hydrazine fueled fourth stage. The 3 stage Pegasus is 15.2 m (50 feet) long, 1.27 m (50 inches) in diameter, weighs about 19,000 kg (42,000 pounds), and has a 6.7 m (22 foot) wingspan. The Pegasus is carried to about 11.6 km (38,000 ft) by B-52 or L-1011. At altitude, and traveling at Mach 0.8, the Pegasus is dropped. This enables the vehicle to carry twice the payload weight it could carry if launched from the ground. After leaving the lifting aircraft, the first stage is ignited and the vehicle is boosted into orbit. The relatively flat ascent subjects the payload to lower accelerations, dynamic pressures, and structural, thermal, and acoustic stresses. The Pegasus can carry 454 kg (1000 pounds) to LEO or 125 kg (275 pounds) to GTO (geosynchronous transfer orbit). First test launches of Pegasus were in 1994. ---- 8.2.5 Centaur Already mentioned, the Centaur is used as an upper stage on the Atlas I and II and Titan II, IIA and IIAS launch vehicles. The Centaur itself was designed in 1958 as an upper stage. It was the first high energy upper stage and uses two Pratt and Whitney liquid fuel engines. It can ignite once to boost a payload to GTO, coast for up to 14 hours, then re-ignite to circularize the final orbit and/or perform a plane change. There are currently two versions of the Centaur appropriately called the Atlas Centaur and the Titan Centaur. They use the same engine but have a somewhat different tank structure. The Atlas Centaur is 9.14 m (30 feet) long, 3 m (10 feet) in diameter and can put 1225 kg (2700 pounds) to GTO. The Titan Centaur is 8.99 m (29.5 feet) long, 4.3 m (14 feet) diameter and can place 4627 kg (10,200 pounds) to GTO. There were two Centaur variants developed as the Space Shuttle upper stage. They were the Centaur G and the Centaur G-Prime. After the Challenger failure, safety concerns (i.e a liquid fueled rocket INSIDE the orbiter payload bay), led to abandonment of the Centaur G and G-Prime for the Shuttle system. ---- 8.2.6 Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) The IUS is a solid fueled, two-stage upper stage used both with the Space Shuttle and the Titan IV. Upon cancellation of the Shuttle Centaur, the IUS became the Space Shuttle's heavy-lift upper stage. It was used to launch the Galileo (1989) and and Magellan (1989) interplanetary probes, TDRS 6 (1993) among others. The IUS can deliver 2720 kg (6000 pounds) to GTO on the Titan IV, and 2400 kg (5300 pounds) to GTO from the Space Shuttle. The IUS is 5.18 m (17 feet) long and 2.9 m (9.5 feet) in diameter. ---- 8.2.7 Payload Assist Module (PAM) The PAM was designed to improve the capacity of the Delta and Atlas vehicles, as well as for use on the Space Shuttle. There are three versions: the PAM-D (Delta), PAM-A (Atlas) and the Spinning Solid Upper Stage (SSUS) - a spin stabilized version for release from the Space Shuttle. The Delta version is also spin stabilized, and so is similar to the SSUS version. The PAM-D designation is used almost universally and the SSUS designation no longer used. There are still differences between the PAM-D used on Delta and the PAM-D used on the Shuttle. The Shuttle PAM-D uses a slightly shorter nozzle and is spun up using two small electric motors. The PAM-D, used as the Delta third stage, used small rockets for spin-up. As many as four PAM-D payloads can be carried on a single Space Shuttle mission. ---- 8.2.8 Integrated Apogee Boost System (IABS) The IABS is designed to boost DSCS III satellites into geostationary orbits from an Atlas II. The IABS is a spin stabilized, liquid fueled, single stage vehicle which uses hypergolic fuel instead of the Centaur's liquid oxygen - liquid hydrogen combination. IABS can remain operational and in orbit for up to 12 days, well beyond the Centaur's 14 hour limit. The IABS was uniquely designed to be used in conjunction with the Centaur. The Centaur is used to perform the first boost to enter a transfer orbit, and the IABS then performs the circularization burn at apogee. ---- 8.2.9 Taurus The Taurus is a hybrid vehicle comprised of the Peacekeeper ICBM first stage and a wingless version of the Pegasus. The Taurus is designed to be a fully mobile, ground launched vehicle. It uses no launch tower, support structure, or payload processing clean room. The vehicle can carry 1450 kg (3200 pounds) to LEO or 376 kg (830 pounds) to GTO. The first launch was from Vandenberg in 1994. ---- 8.2.10 Space Shuttle The Space Shuttle is the only man-rated space launch vehicle in the USA inventory today. It is currently used for commercial satellite deployment and scientific studies. The USA military has not used the vehicle for satellite deployment since the Challenger failure in 1986. The three main capabilities exploited by the Space Shuttle orbiter today are: 1) R&D and manufacturing in space, 2) Satellite repair, service, and retrieval, and 3) Space Station construction. Its typical operating altitude is between 250 and 593 km (135 and 320 nautical miles). The system is only launched from Cape Canaveral. Vandenberg was intended to be an alternate launch site for polar orbit injection but a combination of launch site delays, cost, the Challenger failure, and politics led to the abandonment of the Vandenberg launch capability. The Space Shuttle can loft 24,400 kg (53,700 pounds) to LEO or 5900 kg (13,000 pounds) to GTO with an upper stage (PAM or IUS). ---- 8.3 USA Commercial Rockets ---- 8.3.1 LLV-1 Lockheed Launch Vehicle also known as the "Astria" or the Lockheed Martin Launch Vehicle (LMLV) consists of a Castor 120 first stage, an Orbus 21D second stage, and an OAM3 (Orbit Adjust Module) hydrazine third stage. The LLV is capable of payloads up to 3630 kg (8000 pounds) into LEO. Lockheed has a contract with the USA Air Force to use the launch facilities at Vandenberg Air Force base for launch operations. ---- 8.3.2 Conestoga The Conestoga is a product of EER Systems Corp, Vienna, Virginia. It is a solid fueled booster capable of carrying multiple payloads into earth orbit. The Conestoga currently is designated in two models -- model 1620 can lift 1000 kg (2679 pounds) to LEO and model 1220 can lift 328 kg (723 pounds) to LEO. EER is under contract with NASA to launch from the Wallops Island Flight Facility, Wallops Island Virginia. ---- 8.4 European Space Agency The workhorse of the European Space Agency (ESA) is the Ariane. The 3 stage Ariane was designed as a direct launch to GTO vehicle and the first version, Ariane 1, was launched 11 times between 1979 and 1986. Ariane 2 and 3 were variants, which increased the launch mass to orbit, with the Ariane 3 the first to carry strap-on boosters. The Ariane 2 and 3 were used between 1986 and 1989 until the Ariane 4 was transitioned into full operational capability. The Ariane 4 is the current version, with the Ariane 5 scheduled for operational launches in 1997-98. ---- 8.4.1 Ariane The Ariane 4 is produced in 6 variants. The following table summarizes the capabilities of the Ariane family of boosters: Model Strap-ons Lift Capability to GTO ------------- --------- --------------------------------- Ariane 40 none 1200-1600 kg (2646-3538 lb) Ariane 42P 2 solid 2000-2500 kg (4410-5512 lb) Ariane 44P 4 solid 2500-3000 kg (5512-6615 lb) Ariane 42L 2 liquid 3000-3800 kg (6615-8379 lb) Ariane 44LP 2 solid/ 4000-4220 kg (8820-9305 lb) 2 liquid Ariane 44L 4 liquid 4200-4720 kg (10,400-10,408 lb) The vehicle is 56-60 m (184-197 ft) tall depending on the payload fairing. Stage one is 3.8 m (12.5 ft) diameter. Stage two and three narrow to 2.6 m (8.5 ft). The payload fairing is 4 m (13 ft) diameter, with a length as short as 8.6 m (28.2 ft) or as long as 12.4 m (40.7 ft). Special fairings provide for a dual-satellite launch capability. ---- 8.4.2 Ariane 5 The six Ariane 4 versions will be phased out in 1999 and the Ariane 5 will become the workhorse for the European Space Agency. The first launch attempt of the Ariane 5 ended in failure on 6 June 1996. The setback will most likely delay operational flights until 1997 and possibly 1998. The Ariane 5 is projected to lift 1300 kg (2.9 tons) to GTO or 8165 kg (18 tons) to LEO -- and will be man-rated. Plans call for the Ariane 5 to carry the manned Hermes spaceplane. The European Space Agency is also considering an unmanned version to be an orbital transfer vehicle for the international space station. The Ariane 5 looks much like a stubby Titan III. It is 45.71-51.37 m (150-185 ft) tall and 5.4 m (17.7 ft) in diameter. It is flanked by two solid-fueled boosters, each 31.6 m (103.7 ft) tall by 3.5 m (11.5 ft) diameter. ---- 8.5 Rockets of Other Nations ---- 8.5.1 Long March (China) China's launch capability depends on the Long March rocket. There are four major variants called Long March 1 through Long March 4. The Western aerospace community refers to these Long March variants as CZ-1 through CZ-4. The CZ-1 was developed from an Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM) in 1965 and launched China's first satellite in 1970. The CZ-1 was a three stage vehicle with a solid fueled third stage. There was to be a liquid fueled third stage version called the CZ-1C but has apparently been abandoned. An upgraded CZ-1 was developed instead called the CZ-1D but was never launched. The CZ-1 series was quickly superseded by the CZ-2, the CZ-2C, and the CZ-2D. The CZ-3, CZ-3A, and CZ-3B vehicles upgraded the Long March capability to GEO performance. Finally the CZ-4, CZ-4A and CZ-4B extend launch mass capability. The following table summarizes the Long March family (all are 3 stage unless otherwise noted): Model Height Strap-ons Launch Capability (Note 1) ------ ------ --------- ------------------------------ ------ CZ-1 30m none 300 kg to 440 km Note 2 CZ-1C 33m none 400 km to 600 km Note 3 CZ-1D 28m none 700-750kg to 300 km CZ-1M ? none 900 kg to 300 km Note 3 CZ-2 ? Note 4 CZ-2A Note 5 CZ-2B Note 6 CZ-2C 35-38m none 750 kg to 900 km CZ-2D Note 7 CZ-2E 49-51m 4 liquid CZ-3 44m none 5000kg to 200 km, 1400kg to GTO CZ-3A 52.5m 8500kg to LEO, 2300kg to GTO Note 8 CZ-3B 55.5m 4 liquid 12,000kg to LEO, 4850kg to GTO CZ-3C 55.5m 2 liquid Note 9 CZ-4 42m 6-8 solid 5700kg to LEO Note 10 CZ-4A 42m 4000kg to LEO CZ-4B 43m 4200kg to LEO 1500kg to GTO -------------------------------------------------------------- Note 1. Launch capability is representative only. Lift mass to orbit depends on launch azimuth and orbit altitude. Note 2. English units omitted throughout this table for brevity. Note 3. Never launched. Note 4. Flew only once, replaced by the 2C. Note 5. Became the CZ-4. Note 6. Became the CZ-3. Note 7. Became a two stage design version for the CZ-4. Note 8. Uses same first stage as the CZ-4. Note 9. Unknown capability. Note 10. Addition of strap-on boosters is proposed. Launch capability is if strap-ons were used. ---- 8.5.2 Japan Japan operates two distinct satellite launch programs. The Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS) conducts science missions with solid-fueled rockets, and the National Space Development Agency (NASDA) uses liquid-fueled rockets for application satellites (communications, remote sensing, etc.) The ISAS operated a family of launchers called the M series since the early 1970s. The M3-SII, the latest of the M series, was used for the successful launching of two probes to Halley's comet in 1985 but has not flown since 1995. The M series of vehicles is currently retired while the M5 is being readied for launch. The M5 is described below. NASDA operates a family of launchers designated the N1, N2, H1, H2, and J1. The N1 and N2 were used for space launches from 1975 to 1987 and were replaced by the H1 which was essentially an N2 with larger upper stages. The H1 was, in turn, a stop-gap vehicle while the H2 was developed. The H2 is the current operational vehicle with the J1 under development. The J1 is not meant to replace the H2 as it is a much smaller rocket. ---- 8.5.2.1 M5 The M5 is a 3 stage rocket, solid-fueled, 31 m (101.7 ft) tall, 2.5 m (8.2 ft) diameter. It is designed to lift 2000 kg (4410 lb) to LEO or 800 kg (1764 lb) to GTO. ---- 8.5.2.2 H2 The H2 is a 2 stage vehicle but can accommodate two solid- fueled strap-on boosters. The 2nd stage is restartable. The vehicle stands 50 m (164 ft) tall, though a larger fairing can add just over another meter (3 ft) to its height. Its launch capability is 10,000 kg (22,050 lb) to LEO, 4000 kg (8820 lb) to GTO, or 2000 kg (4410 lb) to GEO. ---- 8.5.2.3 J1 The J1 is a 3 stage rocket, significantly smaller than the H2 at 33 m (108 ft) tall, 1.8 m (5.9 ft) diameter. It can place 850 kg (1874 lb) to LEO. ---- 8.5.3 India Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) is attempting to attain launch capability for remote sensing and communications satellites by developing the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV). The PSLV is a follow-on development from the Augmented SLV (ASLV) which was last launched in 1994. The PSLV is an active launch vehicle and the GSLV is under development. ---- 8.5.3.1 PSLV The PSLV is a 4 stage vehicle, 44.2 m (145 ft) tall, and carries 6 solid-fueled strap-on boosters. The core rocket is a unique combination of solid-fueled and liquid-fueled stages. Stage 1 is solid-fueled, stage 2 is liquid, stage 3 is solid and stage 4 is liquid with restart capability. The PSLV can lift 3000kg (6600 lb) to LEO, 450 kg (992 lb) to GTO, or 1000 kg (2205 lb) to sun-synchronous orbit. ---- 8.5.3.2 GSLV The GSLV will be 51 m (167 ft) tall and carry 2500 kg (5500 lb) to GTO. It will be a 3 stage vehicle with 4 liquid-fueled strap-on boosters. First launch is expected around 1998. ---- 8.5.4 Israel The fledgling Israeli space launch capability relies on a 3-stage rocket called the Shavit. The rocket, built by the Israel Aircraft Industries (IAI), is all solid fueled and thought to be derived from the 2-stage version of the Jerico missile. The Shavit was first launched in 1988, carrying the OFEQ 1. The most recent known launch was in 1995 and carried the OFEQ 3. The Shavit is about 18 m (59 ft) tall and is capable of lifting small payloads (100-300 kg, 220-660 lb) into LEO. The Israeli space launch program is moving towards commercial operations by developing the next generation Shavit called the NEXT. The NEXT is expected to have a stretched first and second stage and a liquid fueled fourth stage. Launch capability will still be in the small payload range to LEO. ======================================================================== This FAQ was written by members of the SeeSat-L mailing list, which is devoted to visual satellite observation. Members of this group also maintain a World Wide Web site. The home page can be found at the URL: http://www.satobs.org/ The information on the VSOHP web site is much more dynamic than that found in this FAQ. For example, the VSOHP site contains current satellite visibility and decay predictions, as well as information about current and upcoming Space Shuttle missions and Mir dockings. The VSOHP site also contains many images, equations, and data/program files that could not be included in this FAQ while maintaining its plain text form. This FAQ and the VSOHP web site are maintained asynchronously, but an effort is made to synchronize information contents as much as possible. The material in this FAQ chapter was last updated in February 1998. ========================================================================